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These selections are culled from a massive book of such readings, consisting of more than seventeen
hundred pages which has been prepared for publication in its entirety first on the internet and then, if
not simultaneously, certainly thereafter in a hardcover edition.
An accompanying reader of some two thousand pages with different material intended for the enrichment
of instructors in Sephardica, is nearing completion.
It is also our hope eventually to supplement and perhaps even replace these texts with a hardcover
two-volume anthology on the model of the Norton Literature Series. One of the major features of this
anthology will be the presentation in English of many important primary sources for which an English
translation has to date not been available. |
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Cohen, Martin A., "The Sephardic Phenomenon: a Reappraisal," American Jewish Archives 44, no.
1 (Spring/Summer 1992): 1-79
In broad strokes, the field of Sephardic studies may be divided into three epochs, each extending for approximately seven centuries, and each with its distinctive characteristics. These epochs may be called respectively, Foundation, Formation and Universalization. The first two epochs developed within the Iberian Peninsula. The final epoch has witnessed the spread of Sephardim and their influence to all corners of the earth.
The era of Foundation begins with the Roman Empire and continues until the Muslim conquest in 711-715. Its origins derive from the early days of the Roman Empire in the first century CE or, perhaps more likely, from the concluding decades of Roman republic a century earlier. It continues until the conquest of almost all the Peninsula by the Muslims beginning in 711 and its conversion into a Muslim country called al-Andalus. It is a period that is not rich in source material. It is full of gaps in its history. Furthermore, aside from a few Jewish tombstones and a few not necessarily but possibly Jewish artifacts all the information it yields about Jews derives from non-Jewish sources. The information it does yield is invaluable for the reconstruction of Jewish life in the Iberian Peninsula during this period.
The era of Formation, comprises two overlapping histories. The first is that of al-Andalus, beginning of course with the Muslim conquest and continuing until the surrender of Granada to Christian forces in 1492. The second is that of the Christian Reconquest, La Reconquista as it its often called, which begins, depending on the historian's predilection, in 718 or 722, and terminates conventionally with the Edict of Expulsion of the Jews from Aragon and Castile in 1492, but, more correctly, with the conversion of the Jews in Portugal by force or fiat in 1497, and the Edict of Expulsion in 1498 from the independent kingdom of Navarre, which had given an often grudging asylum to some refuges from Aragon and Castile. After 1498, at least officially, there was no longer a Jewish presence in the Peninsula. The era of Universalization begins at this point and has continued to our time. This era is the most complex of the three
The era of Universalization begins at this point and has continued to our time. It records the fascinating trajectory, beginning with the events of the last decade of the fifteenth century, of the descendants, both biological and cultural, of the Jews of Sepharad. This era, the most complex of the three, includes seven distinctive populations that intersect at many points:
- The Jews who in the century prior to and in then in the wake of the Edicts of Expulsion
managed to flee the Iberian Peninsula rather than undergo conversion and migrate to lands which
permitted them to live openly as Jews;
- The refugees who left the Peninsula as New Christians (a name imposed upon the fifteenth century
Iberian converts and their descendants theoretically in perpetuity, regardless of the paucity of
identifiable Jews on their ancestral tree), for lands where they could live openly as Jews;
- The New Christian refugees who left the Iberian Peninsula as Catholics for Catholic countries and
emerged as Jews when these countries became Protestant;
- Non-Sephardim from these lands of Sephardic dispersion who through marriage or other association
united with the Sephardim and integrated into their communities;
- The communities of the Eastern Mediterranean which though retaining their cultural identity,
have connected to Sephardic culture in modern times, including those who have associated with the
Sephardic groups in Israel for political advantage against its Ashkenazim;
- The expatriates of the first two groups and their descendants who chose not to live as
Jews in the lands of their dispersion; and
- The descendants of New Christians who remained in the Iberian Peninsula or emigrated to
parts of the Spanish and Portuguese empire as Catholics, with various degrees of sincerity, but, it
must be stated, often of fervent faith.
Individuals in groups 6 and 7 who were indicted by one of the Spanish or Portuguese Inquisitions on the charge of having secretly adhered to the Jewish faith are often included in Sephardic history. But in reality the entire groups should be included because of the influence of the distinctive social position of the New Christians upon their occupational choices and creativity. (See my essay on "The Sephardic Phenomenon," section entitled "The Rationalization of the Sephardic Phenomenon," and especially its conclusion.)
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| Severus' Epistle on the Jews |
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Cohen, Martin A. "Severus' Epistle on the Jews." Helmántica: Revista de Filología Clásica y Hebrea. Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca 35 (1984): 71-79.
The Epistle of Severus, dealing with the miraculous conversion of the Jews of the Balearic island of Menorca, is a gem among the documents that illuminate the foundational era of the Sephardic experience. It is the first major document that deals with the presence of Jews in the Iberian domains. Though highly legendized and ineluctably polemical, it reveals the presence of a significant Jewish community, socially integrated, politically significant, and Hellenistically oriented.
Although no evidence is available, it would not be inappropriate to extrapolate from the sociopolitical conditions of the Jews of Menorca to the Iberian Peninsula as a whole. It is generally assumed that until the conversion to Roman (Catholic) Christianity of the Visigothic king Reccared in 589, the Iberian Peninsula was governed, at least in principle, by Roman imperial law. While this assumption of de facto jurisdiction does not compel a conclusion of de jure implementation, the general impression inferable from the spare details available for the pre-Catholic Christianity in Iberia suggests the basic comfort of its Jewish communities.
Through the prism of its legendization the Epistle of Severus bears testimony to the acrimonious struggle in the Iberian Peninsula in the Iberian Peninsula, as elsewhere, between Arian and Catholic Christianity and illuminates the important political role of the Jewish communities during its unfolding.
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| The Kuzari: in Defense of the Despised Faith |
HUC Library |
Halevi, Yehudah. The Kuzari: in Defense of the Despised Faith. Translated by N. Daniel Korobkin, 287-312, 342-357. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1998
Judah Halevi (1075-1141) was one of the foremost poets and philosophers in Muslim Iberia. He wrote his poetry in the enriched if somewhat recherché Hebrew idiom which grew out of the concern for authentic linguistic creativity in Arabic as well as Hebrew in Muslim Iberia. But, like most other Jewish philosophers, he wrote his magisterial philosophical work, the Kuzari, in Arabic. Set in the form of a mythical conversation between the king of the Khazars, who converted to Judaism three centuries earlier, the Kuzari is a fervent apology for the Jewish faith, as is evidenced by its subtitle "In Defense of the Despised Faith." With his command of the Greek philosophical currents which were prevalent in Muslim Iberia and which challenged the traditional views of revealed religion, Judah Halevi argues their limitations while upholding the validity of the Jewish revelation and the special nature of the Jewish people. In his exposition of the inadequacies of philosophy, Halevi brings to mind the distinguished Muslim philosopher al-Ghazali, who wrote a work entitled The Incoherence of the Philosophers, while in his defense of the inherited faith he recalls Ibn Hazm, the greatest polymath of Muslim Iberia, whose Fisal (Critical Examination) analyzes various philosophical and religious beliefs with a view of arguing the superiority of Islam.
The Kuzari takes the form of a quest for the most valid faith by the King of the Khazars, whose has been visited by an angel in a dream to tell him that while his religious intent has been acceptable, his practice has not been. After speaking briefly and without satisfaction to a philosopher, a Muslim and a Christian about their respective positions, the King turns to a haver, a Jewish sage, with whom he dialogues for the rest of the book.
The selections here constitutes the first of the five parts or "essays" that comprise the Kuzari.
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| The Book of Direction to the Duties of the Heart |
HUC Library |
Ibn Paquda, Bahya ben Joseph. The Book of Direction to the Duties of the Heart / Translated from its original Arabic Al-Hidaya Ila Faraid Al Qulub by Menahem Mansoor, Sara Arenson, and Shoshana Dannhauser, 1-82, 426-446. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1973. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1924.
Like Judah Halevi, his younger contemporary, Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda , who lived in Saragossa, was both a poet and a philosopher. His chef d'oeuvre written around 1180 in Arabic and best known in English by its abbreviated title, The Duties of the Heart, was one of the most popular books among Jews during the Middle Ages and one of the most influential in all of Jewish pietistic literature. Broadly inclusive in its philosophical and theological concerns, it reveals an astonishing knowledge of Greek philosophy, prismed largely through Muslim literature, and the influence of the mystical and pietistic Muslim "Brethren of the Purity." Yet, for all its depth and breadth, The Duties of the Heart is a profoundly Jewish work, concerned with the particulars of Jewish theology and Jewish piety and composed in a measured, engaging style which enhances the appeal of Bahya's thought. The influence of Bahya's work is nowhere better attested to than by its inspiration across the centuries of numerous commentaries and translations into many languages.
The most enduring element in The Duties of the Heart is Bahya's distinction between outer and inner piety, between what he calls the "duties of the limbs" and the "duties of the heart," that is between external, primarily ritual piety, whose sincerity cannot be plumbed, and internal piety, known only to the pious and to God., and which alone can lead, step by step, to a communion with God. In ten sections, or "Gates," as Bahya calls them, he leads the pious Jew from an affirmation of the unity of God to the ecstasy of the love of God.
This selections here presented include the erudite introduction to Bahya's work by its translator, Professor Menahem Mansoor, and Bahya's culminating chapter l0, entitled "On the True Love of God."
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| Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei Hatorah (The Laws [which are] the Foundation of
the Torah) |
HUC Library |
Maimonides, Moses. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei Hatorah (The Laws [which are] the Foundation of the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, 7-35. Jerusalem, New York: Moznayim, 1990.
Moses ben Maimon (a.k.a. Maimonides, also a.k.a. by the acronym Rambam), the scion and apogee of Jewish culture developed in Muslim Iberia, though he himself spent his entire adult life in Egypt, was also one of the most brilliant, creative, productive and controversial figures in all of European history. His Mishneh Torah, the title translatable as Repetition of the Torah or even, by hubristic extension, Second Torah, provoked enthusiastic encomium and acrimonious debate.
The Mishneh Torah is a complete compendium of halakha (Jewish law) from the Talmud and the centuries of its derivative legislation until Maimonides' own time. It represents the culmination of efforts to codify, or at least organize this growing and amorphous body of legislation which had begun in Geonic times and which had reached a high plateau with the promulgation of the great compendium of Isaac Alfasi (a.k.a. by his acronym, the RIF) (1013-1103). Unlike the compendia of his predecessors Maimonides' Mishneh Torah possesses a distinctive structure: It is a model of rationalization, in which all of Jewish law is meticulously organized into fourteen sections.
Alluding to Maimonides' failure to cite his sources, the frequency of his own determinations of Jewish law and the statement in his introduction that if one read the Torah and then the Mishneh Torah, it would not be necessary to read any book in between, his detractors charged Maimonides' with the intention to replace the Talmud.
The selection here presented includes a brief introduction by the translator, Rabbi Touger, and Rambam's introduction to his work. Here Maimonides presents the tradition of the uninterrupted transmission of the Torah from Moses" time, and carries this transmission to his own day, precisely to the year 1178. Then he justifies the composition of his Mishneh Torah by stating that because of many difficulties in his time "the wisdom of our sages has been lost, and the comprehension of our men of understanding has been obfuscated." |
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Maimonides, Moses. The Guide of the Perplexed. Translated by Shlomo Pines, 2-20. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1964.
Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed is one of the towering intellectual achievements of Western Civilization. It represents the culminating effort of the philosophers of the Iberian Peninsula, Muslim as well as Jewish, to harmonize the apparently conflicting world-views of Greek philosophy, especially in its Aristotelian articulation, with the inherited revelations of their respective faiths. In this endeavor, Maimonides' magnum opus of philosophy, completed in Egypt, followed by only a few years the achievement toward the same end within the Muslim tradition by his slightly older Muslim contemporary, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), with whose work Maimonides' Guide appears to have much in common.
The Guide of the Perplexed is not without its own perplexity. The perplexity derives from the realization that while all of Maimonides' other works are organized in a highly systematic and logical manner, easy to follow step by step, the Guide is not. Rather, it all too often appears inchoate, rambling and incomplete. Indeed, Maimonides' introduction, here presented, admits that it is so but at the same time offers, at least for the philosophically oriented cognoscenti, a blueprint for its unscrambling. |
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| Commentary on the Torah / Ramban (Nachmanides): Genesis |
HUC Library |
Nahmanides. Commentary on the Torah / Ramban (Nachmanides): Genesis.
Translated by Rabbi Dr. Charles B. Chavel, 7-33. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1976.
Moses ben Nahman (1194-1270), also known as Nahmanides, (Rabbenu) Moses Gerondi, by his acronym Ramban, or his secular name Bonastruc da Porta) was, in many ways, the avatar of Christian Iberia, just as Maimonides was for its Muslim predecessor. A courtier of King Jaume I (1213-1276) of Aragon-Catalonia, leader of its Jewish communities, distinguished physician, poet, philosopher, polymath and prolific author, he attempted to take a mediating role in the controversies that swirled around the writings of Maimonides. One of his most distinguished and enduringly influential works is his commentary to the Bible, which seeks on the one hand to establish the precise meaning of words and on the other to plumb their deeper meaning in the biblical text. He carefully analyzes halakha and aggada, often with a sermonic bent, and was the first commentator to include kabbalistic material in his text. His commentary presents a window into Ramban's life and thought.
The selection here presented is taken from Ramban's introduction to his commentary on Genesis and his commentary on its first six verses. |
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| Reflections on the Text and Context of the Disputation of Barcelona |
HUC Library |
Cohen, Martin A. "Reflections on the Text and Context of the Disputation of Barcelona." Hebrew Union College Annual 35 (1964): 157-192.
The Disputation of Barcelona in the middle of the thirteenth century (1263) marks a watershed in the history of the Jews of medieval Christian Iberia and one which presaged the Disputation of Tortosa a century and a half later. Like all such disputations, that of Barcelona was not a scholarly convocation intended to find resolution or even to offer clarity on an academic or intellectual question: the content of the disputation was stale as a result of innumerable previous discussions and tracts. On the contrary, the Disputation of Barcelona was a convocation created for political purposes and predetermined conclusion. In this conference, to which Nahmanides had been summoned as the head of the Jewish community, was a reluctant participant who recognized its political frame and the necessity of his appearance for the sake of the Jewish community.
The study here presented seeks to provide the political and diplomatic contextualization for the Disputation. This study has had an interesting history of its own. It appears to have inspired a number of studies, several suggesting a victory for Nahmanides -- something quite impossible given the way the disputation was structured and paid for - against a bumbling opponent, the kind of Christian protagonist whom the Christians would never have chosen. |
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Albo, Joseph. Sefer Ha-'Ikkarim (Book of Principles), translated by Isaac Husik, 181-204. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1929-1930. Vol..I, 181-204 and Vol. 3, 217-254.
Joseph Albo (late fourteenth-early fifteenth century), one of the most distinguished rabbis and community leaders of fifteenth century Iberia, is best known for his participation in the Disputation of Tortosa (1413-1414), his steadfast adherence to Judaism in its wake, despite its abandonment by many of his colleagues, and, his passionate exposition of Judaism as a "divine law" in his Sefer ha-Ikkarim (Book of Basic Principles). In this book Albo arranges the basic beliefs of Judaism into three fundamental principles (ikkarim), eight derivative roots (shorashim), and six branches (anafim) or dogmas. Among the dogmas, and therefore of comparatively lesser weight, is the belief in the coming of the Messiah, central to Christian belief, which had occupied a pivotal place in the Disputation of Tortosa. The Sefer ha-Ikkarim was long one of the most widely circulated and popular books among Jews and was well known and respected by Christian theologians, including those who polemicized against it.
The first of the extensive selections presented derives from the concluding chapters (22 to 25) of the first book of the Sefer ha-Ikkarim. It deals with the question of examining one's religious beliefs against those of others, calling to mind Judah Halevi's Cuzari and leading to the exposition of eleven principles, constituting the fundamental roots and branches of the Jewish faith. The second selection, comprising chapters 25 and 26 of the third book, contains Albo's defense of Judaism against the critique of Christian scholars and his discussion of theTen Commandments. |
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| Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel (Consolaçam ás
tribulaçôens de Israel) |
HUC Library |
Usque, Samuel. Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel (Consolaçam ás tribulaçôens de Israel). Translated by Martin A. Cohen, 37-40, 198-209, 214-224. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1965.
We know Samuel Usque only through his illustrious Consolaçam as tribulaçôens de Israel, originally published in Ferrara in 1552, banned by the Inquisition, republished in Amsterdam in 1599, but always scarce and long denied its rightful place as one of the great classics of Portuguese literature. Who this Samuel Usque was, and what his relationship might have been to the printer, Abraham Usque, whose press produced the Consolaçam, or to the poet Solomon Usque, we do not know. We cannot even determine whether the name Samuel Usque might have been a literary or political pseudonym.
But two facts appear certain: first, that Samuel Usque was a new Christian who had embraced or reembraced Judaism, and second, that he wrote his opus in order to persuade other New Christians to do the same.
The Conolaçam is written in the form of a pastoral dialogue, with the shepherd Icabo (i.e. Jacob) representing the Jewish people who are reeling from the most recent of their millennial hardships, namely those in the Iberian Peninsula in the last decade of the fifteenth century, and Numeo, the prophet Nathan and the Comforter, explaining that their sufferings are now about to end and to usher in the long promise age of millennial glory.
The excerpts here presented include Usque's dedication to Do&ncirc;a Gracia Nasi, the grande-dame of the Jewish Renaissance, whose support made possible the publication of the Consolaçam, the prologue to his work, and some historical sections from Part III, and Usque's "Final Lament Over all Israel's Misfortunes Past and Present". |
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Culi, Jacob. The Torah Anthology (MeAm Lo'ez) by Yaakov Culi. Translated by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan, 1-32. New York: Maznaim Publishing Company, 1977.
The Me'am Lo'ez is one of the towering and most enduring achievements of Sephardic literature. It was the brainchild of the hakham Jacob Culi (c. 1685-1732), the distinguished scion of illustrious Sephardic rabbis and a renowned editor and respondent.
The background of the Me'am Lo'ez lies in the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the consequent financial and intellectual impoverization of its Jewish community. The Jewish community suffered from the loosening of moral norms, the rise of superstition and a precipitate decline in Jewish education, immediately apparent notable in the diminution of its Hebrew learning. To stem the adverse tides, Jacob Culi conceived his Me'am Lo'ez. The Me'am Lo'ez is a popular introduction to the Jewish faith and Jewish knowledge. Written in the form of a biblical commentary in Ladino, the common language of his constituency, it contains a collection of Talmudic and other traditional Jewish texts, selected, organized and accompanied by the author's editorials, for the purpose of teaching a lesson in Judaism connected to the Biblical verses involved. Culi himself died while on chapter twenty-four of his commentary to Exodus. His work was continued in the subsequent decades by Isaac Magreso, Isaac Behor Arguiti and other gifted scholars, who commented on nearly the entirety of the rest of the Bible and also left us an exquisite commentary on Ethics of the Fathers.
The selection here presented is Culi's introduction to the Me'am Lo'ez, which provides the reader with a synopsis of the chain of the Jewish tradition and its ritual and ethical obligations on the one hand, and, on the other, an introduction to his method, purpose and goals. |
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| The Autobiography of Luis de Carvajal, the Younger |
HUC Library |
"The Autobiography of Luis de Carvajal, the Younger." American Jewish Historical Quarterly 55 (1965-1966): 302-312.
Luis de Carvajal the Younger was a New Christian who belonged to one of the most illustrious families of the early modern Iberian world. His uncle, Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva, was Governor of the province of Nuevo León, a vast territory that embraced most of what is today Northern Mexico and the southwest of the United States. Young Luis, handsome, brilliant and ambitious, was being groomed as successor to his uncle when, based on alleged hard evidence, much of which was true, it was claimed that members of the family were engaged in the secret practice of Jewish rites. The allegations cast suspicions upon the entire family, including the Governor and severely damaged the career path of Luis the Younger. Nearly all the members of his family, along with some relatives and friends, were arrested by the Inquisition.
The Carvajal clan was arguably the most important family nexus ever prosecuted by any Iberian Inquisition. Their trial records reveal their breeding, their culture, their social and political involvements, and indeed combine for a panoramic illumination of the peninsular and colonial society of Spain and Portugal.
Though he had been initiated into Jewish practice on attaining the age of puberty, it is likely that young Luis' practice of Judaism was minimal until the publication of the allegations and their unmistakable adverse implications for his career.
Luis was twice indicted by the Inquisition. The first time he was formally reconciled to the Catholic faith. The second time he was sent to the stake. He was then thirty years old.
While in prison, Luis composed tender letters to his family, often written on scraps of paper or even plantain skins. He also composed two other documents, one an ethical last will and testament, and the other an autobiography. Together, these compositions, all written in eloquent and moving Spanish prose, constitute one of the earliest literary treasures of Spanish literature in the New World.
The selection here presented is taken from Luis autobiography. |
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| Religion: Rabbinic Tradition and the Response to Modernity |
HUC Library |
Zohar, Zvi. "Religion: Rabbinic Tradition and the Response to Modernity." Chapter 5 in The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times. Edited by Reeva Spector Simon, Michael Menachem Laskier, and Sara Reguer, 65-84. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
The modern Sephardic world is a tapestry of complexities, women by the various heritages of ethnic and cultural Sephardim through the ages, textured by the challenges of modernity and colored by the particularities of the environments of Sephardic residence.
Nowhere is this more apparent than in the sphere of religious law and observance. A study of the processes Sephardic halakha and codification dramatically reveals the confrontation and compromise between heritage and environment, between tradition and modernity, between the morbid rigidity of the vested past and the invigorating flexibility of the innovative present
The selection here presented by the renowned scholar Zvi Zohar traces the many dimension of these challenges and their resulting accommodations. |
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A Survey of Sephardic Art and Music are represented in the two references below:
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| A Treasury of Sephardic Laws and Customs: The Ritual Practices of Syrian,
Moroccan, Judeo-Spanish and Spanish and Portuguese Jews of North America |
HUC Library |
Dobrinsky, Herbert C. A Treasury of Sephardic Laws and Customs: The Ritual Practices of Syrian, Moroccan, Judeo-Spanish and Spanish and Portuguese Jews of North America, 36-63. Yeshiva University Press: Hoboken, N.J. and New York, 1986.
As is the case with all human groups, the laws and customs of Sephardic Jews are characterized by the continuity of heritage and the nuances of context. What gives especial interest to the laws and customs of the Sephardim is the richness of this continuity and the variety of its contexts. In its development, Jewish legal tradition, its halakha, bears the stamp of significant Sephardic involvement and sculpture, through its responsa and above through its major codifications, from Alfasi to Jacob ben Asher to Joseph Caro, and between and beyond. Their achievements dramatically reveal the diverse environments of their inspiration and decision, and often reveal the quotidian customs folkways and mores that have given each of these environments their distinctive élan.
The selection here presented from Dr. Dobrinsky's masterly compilation contains fascinating information about the diverse customs surrounding engagement and marriage. |
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B. Kligman, Mark. "Music." Chapter 12 in The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times. Edited by Reeva Spector Simon, Michael Menachem Laskier, and Sara Reguer, 224-234. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
Like the rest of Sephardic studies, the study of Sephardic music is largely the investigation of the diverse environments of the unfolding of the Sephardic experience. Sephardic music can thus be fruitfully investigated only in the light of its inherited traditions and the influences of its contexts. Yet such investigation is hampered by an insufficiency of notation and collection and, most often, by its predominantly oral transmission. This essentially means that innumerable treasures of Sephardic music have been lost from those Sephardic communities that no longer have significant geographical rootedness and cultural continuity. Added to all this is the fact that Sephardic music has as a rule not been highly prioritized in the hierarchy of disciplines in Sephardic studies.
The selection presented here affords an example of a pioneering effort toward the rectification of this situation. In it Dr. Kligman opens a window to the dazzling variety of the music of the Sephardim in the various modern communities of North Africa and the Middle East and implicitly concretizes the methodology requisite for a study of the field. |
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